Abstract

Better understanding the mechanisms underlying developing literacy has promoted the development of more effective

reading interventions for typically developing children. Such knowledge may facilitate effective instruction of deaf and

hard-of-hearing (DHH) children. Hence, the current study examined the multivariate associations among phonological

awareness, alphabetic knowledge, word reading, and vocabulary skills in DHH children who have auditory access to speech.

One hundred and sixty-seven DHH children (Mage = 60.43 months) were assessed with a battery of early literacy measures.

Forty-six percent used at least 1 cochlear implant; 54% were fitted with hearing aids. About a fourth of the sample was

acquiring both spoken English and sign. Scores on standardized tests of phonological awareness and vocabulary averaged

at least 1 standard deviation (SD) below the mean of the hearing norming sample. Confirmatory factor analyses showed

that DHH children’s early literacy skills were best characterized by a complex 3-factor model in which phonological

awareness, alphabetic knowledge, and vocabulary formed 3 separate, but highly correlated constructs, with letter-sound

knowledge and word reading skills relating to both phonological awareness and alphabetic knowledge. This supports the

hypothesis that early reading of DHH children with functional hearing is qualitatively similar to that of hearing children.